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Using the Categorical Converter - 1 The first step in using the Categorical Converter is to locate the premise and the conclusion. That is what the letters above and beside the images represent. The letters at the top point to every proposition () straight below them. They indicate the four major types of categorical proposition: A Universal Affirmative (All S are P) E Universal Negative (No S are P) I Particular Affirmative (Some S are P) O Particular Negative (Some S are not P) The S and P represent categories. For example, S may represent Dogs while P may represent Mammals. For any category, we can imagine the opposite of that category. So, for example, if we can imagine Dogs, we can imagine non-Dogs. Where S stands for Dogs, nS stands for non-Dogs. Please click here to continue. 10 August 1996 For Educators Stephen Downes Guide to the Logical Fallacies Copyright © Stephen Downes, 1995-2001 stephen.downes@ualberta.ca